Klasa 2

30th Oct 

Topic: Word formation – nouns

latest publication

refreshments are available

express sb’s disapproval

in your eagerness to

standard procedures

pale into insignificance

the simplicity of the device

be sworn to secrecy

the cost of membership

pay for any breakage

there is every likelihood

value your independence

experience anxiety

 

Topic: Modal verbs advanced

Might/could (but not may)

-        past possibility which didn’t happen

We could/might have won the game but Martin didn’t score.

-        expressing annoyance + at least

You could/might at least have apologised.

Might/may (but not could)

-        expressing concession – ‘chociaż’

He might/may be pretty but he’s quite dumb.

-        suggest there is no better alternative + as well

I might as well go shopping. (I have nothing better to do)

I may as well tell you now. ( You are going to find out anyway)

Can

-        theoretical possibility

This classroom can hold 50 people.

-        criticism

She can say hurtful things sometimes.

 

 

Ability in the past

-        general ability – could

When I was five I could ride a bike.

-        on one occasion/situation – be able to/manage

I managed/was able to solve the problem.

Other ways of expressing future possibility

A strong/distinct/real/ possibility

A good/ fair chance

Faint possibility

Remote/slight chance

It’s highly likely

It’s hardly likely

Topic: Past modal verbs of speculation

must have

We use must have + past participle when we feel sure about what happened.

The thief must have had a key. The door was locked and nothing was broken.

can't have / couldn't have 

can't have/couldn't have + past participle when we think it's not possible that something happened.

She can't have driven there. Her car keys are still here.

might have / may have/ could have

might have/may have/could have + past participle when we think it's possible that something happened. 

I think I might have left the air conditioning on. Please can you check?

might not have/ may not have + past participle

He may not have bought enough cakes.

Topic: Modal verbs of speculation in the present.

must

-        we feel sure that something is true or it's the only realistic possibility.

This must be her house. I can see her car in the garage.
He must live near here because he always walks to work.

can't/couldn’t

-        when we feel sure that something is not possible.

It can't be far now. We've been driving for hours.

 

 

might, may, could

-        we think something is possible but we're not sure. 

She's not here yet. She might be stuck in traffic.
He's not answering. He could be in class.

In negative: might not/ may not

I don’t know – it may not be my friend.

Topic: Reading: “A Long Way to the Top”

Vocabulary:

reportedly

They reportedly are expecting a child.

longevity

inconclusive

The results of the studies have been inconclusive.

ascent

fleeting

We met for one fleeting moment.

gruelling

The experience was far more gruelling than I expected.

throwaway remark/comment

seemingly

The two of them seemingly know little about each other.

profound

She felt profound sadness.

refreshing

That was a refreshing change.

convey

Can you convey this message, please?

push the boundaries

Topic: Challenge and achievement – vocabulary

 

overnight success

have a burning ambition

increase motivation

meet with complete failure

face the formidable challenge

leave nothing to chance

 

fulfil an ambition

realise an ambition

end in/result in failure

achieve success

enjoy success

improve motivation

lack motivation

stand a chance

jump at the chance

take up a challenge

rise to the challenge

major challenge

daunting challenge

slight chance

fair chance

lifelong ambition

main ambition

total failure

costly failure

dismal failure

resounding success

primary motivation

poor motivation

 

2nd Oct

Topic: Participle clauses

Participle clauses enable us to say information in a more economical way.

They are formed using:

-         present participles (going, reading, seeing, walking, etc.)

-         past participles (gone, read, seen, walked, etc.)

-        perfect participles (having gone, having read, having seen, having walked

Present participle clauses

Present participles have a similar meaning to active verbs. 

• To give the result of an action
  The bomb exploded, destroying the building.
• To give the reason for an action
  Knowing she loved reading, Richard bought her a book.

Past participle clauses

Past participles normally have a passive meaning.

• With a similar meaning to an if condition
  Used in this way, participles can make your writing more concise. (If you use participles in this way, … )
• To give the reason for an action
  Worried by the news, she called the hospital.

Perfect participle clauses

Perfect participle clauses show that the action they describe was finished before the action in the main clause. Perfect participles can be structured to make an active or passive meaning.

Having got dressed, he slowly went downstairs.
Having finished their training, they will be fully qualified doctors.
Having been made redundant, she started looking for a new job.

Topic: First Conditional

-        open, real, ‘jeśli’

If + present simple, will + czasownik

If I get my wages soon, I’ll buy the concert tickets.

If + present continuous, will + czasownik

If you aren’t going, I won’t go either.

If + present perfect, will + czasownik

If I have done my homework, I’ll go out.

emphasise we have to do sth first

If + present, modal verb (may, should, can)+ czasownik

If you take this medicine, you may feel better.

If + present, present continuous

If you don’t go with us, I’m not going either.

If + present, tryb rozkazujący

If you see Bob, tell him to phone me.

If + present, future perfect

If we keep driving, we’ll have got there by noon.

Topic: Future Continuous and Future Perfect

Future continuous

will/won't be + -ing form

• will be in progress at a specific time in the future:

When you come out of school tomorrow, I'll be boarding a plane.
Try to call before 8 o'clock. After that, we'll be watching the match.

- polite plans

Will you be starting work earlier with your new job?

Future perfect

We use the future perfect simple to talk about something that will be completed before a specific time in the future.

will/won't have + past participle (III forma)

The guests are coming at 8 p.m. I'll have finished cooking by then.
By 9 October we'll have been married for 50 years.

Phrases:

-        by or by the time

-        in or in a day's time / in two months' time / in five years' time

Future perfect continuous

will + have + been + present participle (-ing form)

It’s generally used with two time references:

-        by/ by the time/ in

-        for/since

 By the time they get here I will have been working on it for nearly three months.

Topic: Quantifiers

Quantifiers with count and uncount nouns

We can use these quantifiers with both count and uncount nouns:

all	some	more	a lot of	enough
no	any	most	lots of	less

We have lots of time.
Joe has lots of friends.
I can't go out. I've got no money.

These more colloquial forms are also used with both count and uncount nouns:

plenty of

heaps of

a load of

loads of

tons of

We have loads of time.
Joe has plenty of friends.
There was heaps of food.

some and any

 some in affirmative sentences.

any: negatives and questions

We saw some lions at the zoo, but we didn't see any tigers.

but we can use some for offers and requests:

Would you like some tea?

Quantifiers with count nouns

Some quantifiers can be used only with count nouns:

(not) many	each	either	(a) few
several	both	neither	fewer

Quantifiers with uncount nouns

Some quantifiers can be used only with uncount nouns:

(not) much

a bit of

a little

Would you like a little wine?

These quantifiers are used particularly with abstract nouns such as time, money and trouble:

a great deal of

a good deal of

It will probably cost a great deal of money.

both, either and neither

If we are talking about two people or things, we use the quantifiers both, either and neither:

One supermarket	Two supermarkets	More than two supermarkets
The supermarket was closed.	Both the supermarkets were closed.	All the supermarkets were closed.
The supermarket wasn’t open.	Neither of the supermarkets was open.	None of the supermarkets were open.
I don’t think the supermarket was open.	I don’t think either of the supermarkets was open.	I don’t think any of the supermarkets were open.

every and each

We use the quantifiers every and each with singular nouns to mean all:

There was a party in every street. (= There were parties in all the streets.)
Every shop was decorated with flowers. (= All the shops were decorated with flowers.)

After most of quantifiers we can use of; we cannot use of after no, every – instead we use none of and every one of/each of

 

Most of my friends live nearby.

None of my friends likes chocolate.

A few and a bit of or a little mean some.

I've brought a few friends.
There's a bit of milk left.
It needs a little more work.

We use few and little to show that we are talking about a small amount.

Few people came to the meeting.
There are few places where you can still see these birds.
We have very little time.

Topic: Advanced Comparatives

Comparatives: comparing things/people

Ben is taller than Jack.

My room is more comfortable than yours.

1)    as … as/ not as…as

This car is as fast as Ben’s.

I’m not as clever as my brother.

2)    more and more/less and less – to talk about change

It’s becoming hotter and hotter.

These films are less and less exciting.

 

3)    the…the

The less you sleep, the more tired you are.

The faster, the better.

Qualifying comparatives

1)    When the things are the same:

Just as … as

Exactly as … as

Equally as … as

My essay is exactly as good as yours.

2)    When things are different:

-        small difference: almost as … as

not quite as … as

nearly as … as

Tim is almost as tall as me.

-        big difference:

clearly as … as

nothing like as … as

nowhere near as … as

My homework clearly isn’t as easy as yours.

My homework is nothing like as easy as yours.

3)    When things are different

 

-        Small difference: a little taller

a bit taller

slightly taller

-        Big difference:  a lot more popular

far more popular

much more popular

significantly more popular

10th Dec 

Topic: Gradable and ungradable adjectives

Gradable adjectives – different levels of quality

e.g bored, enjoyable, exciting, puzzling, resentful

you can use adverbs like: very, a bit, pretty, slightly, extremely

 

Ungradable adjectives

e.g amazing, brilliant, exhausted, ridiculous, terrible, wonderful

you can use adverbs: absolutely, totally, completely, really

Topic: Past Modal Verbs of speculation

Certainty: must

Must have + III forma czasownika

John is not at home. He must have gone to work

 

Certainty: can’t/couldn’t

Can’t/couldn’t have + III forma czasownika

He can’t have been in PE – he’s off sick.

 

He must have gone abroad =/= He can’t have gone abroad

 

Possibility: may/might/could

May have + III forma czasownika

Where are your friends? They may have got lost

 

Possibility negative: may not/might not

might not have + III forma czasownika

He may not have received your message.

 

Probability – should/ought to

Should have + III forma

Ought to have + III forma

The bus ought to have come by now.

 

Advice or criticism – should/ought to

Should have + III forma

Shouldn’t have + III forma

You should have gone to the doctor.

You shouldn’t have said that.

You ought not to have eaten that cake.

 

Obligation

-        Personal obligation – must

-        External obligation – have to

Past – had to

She had to study yesterday.

Negative – didn’t have to

We didn’t have to go to school last week.

 

Necessity – need

Past – needed

I needed to buy pasta yesterday

-        lack of necessity – didn’t need to

We didn’t need to buy chocolate.

-        past action that turned out to be unnecessary:

needn’t have + III forma

I needn’t have watered the flowers.

 

I didn’t need to buy flour. – and I didn’t buy – nie potrzebowałem kupować…

I needn’t have bought flour but I bought it – niepotrzebnie kupiłem mąkę

 

Ability – can/be able to

Past: could/couldn’t – general ability

When I was five I could ride a bike.

 

Past: was/were able to – specific situation

Topic: Modal verbs – present

Obligation - musieć

Must/have to

-     Must: must for more personal opinions about what it is necessary to do.

I must do my homework today (because I’m a good student)

-        Have to: for what somebody in authority has said it is necessary to do.

-        I have to do my homework every day (because teachers make me)

She has to get up early.

Negative: nie musieć

don’t have to/doesn’t have to

We don’t have to wear uniforms at school.

She doesn’t have to wake up early.

 

Necessity: potrzebować

need – I need to do my shopping today.

She needs to be helped.

don’t need/doesn’t need/needn’t–

I don’t need to learn everything.

I needn’t/she needn’t cook today.

 

Advice – powinno się

should/ought to

You ought to go to the doctor.

Negative: shouldn’t/ ought not to

She ought not to play truant.

 

Be supposed to do

We are supposed to leave at 8

 

Permission/prohibition

Can/can’t – mogę/nie mogę

Can I go out?

You can’t talk here.

Be allowed to do – wolno, pozwalać

You aren’t allowed to park here.

He is allowed to leave the country.

Mustn’t – nie wolno

You mustn’t smoke here.

 

Ability

Can – umieć - skills

 She can swim but she can’t skate.

To be able to – specific situations

I was able to do my math homework yesterday.

I’ve been able to do my homework.

I’ll be able to help you.

 

Speculation/Deduction

1)    Certainty + :must

He must be worried about something.

He’s not at school – he must be ill.

 

2)    Certainty - : can’t/couldn’t

It’s warm today – you can’t be cold.

She couldn’t be ill.

 

3)    Possibility: may/might/could

He may have an exam.

He could be at home.

He might be angry

 

Negative: may not/might not

He might not be home

 

Topic: Past Perfect

Past perfect for the earlier of two past actions

The past perfect shows the earlier action and the past simple shows the later action.

When the police arrived, the thief had escaped.

If there's only a single event, we don't use the past perfect, even if it happened a long time ago.

The Romans spoke Latin. (NOT The Romans had spoken Latin.)

Adverbs used with Past Perfect:

already (= 'before the specified time')

still (= as previously)

ever (= 'at any time before the specified time')

never (= 'at no time before the specified time')

before

by the time 

I called his office but he'd already left.
It still hadn't rained at the beginning of May.
It was the most beautiful photo I'd ever seen.
I'd never met anyone from California before I met Jim.

They left before I'd spoken to them.

By the time I moved in, they had finished the building work.

It was the first/second time…

It was the first time I had been in Turkey.

 

Topic: Talking about the past: Past Simple and Past Continuous

1)    Past Simple

-        completed action that happened at a specific time in the past (with past time expression)

When we lived in New York, we had a bakery.

-        habitual actions and behaviour in the past – (instead of used to/would)

Did you bite your nails when you were a child?

Once I played basketball a lot.

 

2)    Past Continuous

-        situations or action in progress at a specific moment in past

Yesterday in the afternoon I was reading a book.

-        a past situation or action which was in progress when another action happened:

We were having breakfast when Mark called.

What were you doing when I came?

-        repeated past actions that the speaker finds annoying (with always)

She was always complaining.

 

24.09.25

Topic: Future forms.

1.We use the present simple for something scheduled:

We have a lesson next Monday.

2.We can use the present continuous for plans or arrangements:

I'm playing football tomorrow.

3. We use will (Future simple):

• when we express beliefs about the future: (I think, believe, hope, promise, be sure)

 It will be a nice day tomorrow

• for spontaneous decisions

4. We use be going to:

• to talk about plans or intentions:

I'm going to drive to work today.

• to make predictions based on evidence we can see:

Be careful! You are going to fall. (= I can see that you might fall.)

 

5. We use Future Continuous for something happening in a specific time in the future:

I'll be working at eight o'clock. Can you come later?

6. We can use Future Continuous instead of the Present Continuous or be going to when we are talking about plans, arrangements and intentions:

They'll be coming to see us next week.

 

 23.09.25

Topic: Dreams for the future – reading and vocabulary

applicant – a person who applies for the job

trainee – a person who trains at a job

personal statement – you write when you apply for university or a job

student loan – money you borrow so you can study

coursework – student’s work that is assessed

placement – a job you do to gain experience

module – a unit

curriculum - all subjects you learn      (pl. curricula)

recruit – accept sb working for you

full-time job

well-paid job

 

17.09.25

Topic: Present Perfect Simple and Continuous

Present Perfect Simple

have/has + III forma czasownika

-        to talk about a past event when the time is not given or unimportant

I’ve had breakfast and I’m not hungry.

-        with expressions such as: already, just, yet, never, ever, for, since, recently, lately, so far

He has already had lunch.

Have you ever travelled to Africa?

I’ve known David for 10 years.

-        with expression: it is the first/second time…

It’s the first time I’ve driven a car.

Present Perfect Continuous

have been/has been + ing form

-        emphasise on duration (for/since)

He’s been writing this novel for ten years.

-        activity or situation is incomplete

I’ve been reading an interesting book lately.

-        suggest that an activity or situation is temporary (instead of Present Cont)

My bike is broken so I’ve been going to school by bus. (I’m going…)

-        repetition

Zoe has been phoning you. (She has phoned you six times).

 

11.09.25

Topic: Past Perfect

Past perfect for the earlier of two past actions

The past perfect shows the earlier action and the past simple shows the later action.

When the police arrived, the thief had escaped.

If there's only a single event, we don't use the past perfect, even if it happened a long time ago.

The Romans spoke Latin. (NOT The Romans had spoken Latin.)

Adverbs used with Past Perfect:

already (= 'before the specified time')

still (= as previously)

ever (= 'at any time before the specified time')

never (= 'at no time before the specified time')

before

by the time 

I called his office but he'd already left.
It still hadn't rained at the beginning of May.
It was the most beautiful photo I'd ever seen.
I'd never met anyone from California before I met Jim.

They left before I'd spoken to them.

By the time I moved in, they had finished the building work.

It was the first/second time…

It was the first time I had been in Turkey.

09-10.09.25 

Topic: Talking about the past: Past Simple and Past Continuous

1)    Past Simple

-        completed action that happened at a specific time in the past (with past time expression)

When we lived in New York, we had a bakery.

-        habitual actions and behaviour in the past – (instead of used to/would)

Did you bite your nails when you were a child?

Once I played basketball a lot.

 

2)    Past Continuous

-        situations or action in progress at a specific moment in past

Yesterday in the afternoon I was reading a book.

-        a past situation or action which was in progress when another action happened:

We were having breakfast when Mark called.

What were you doing when I came?

-        repeated past actions that the speaker finds annoying (with always)

She was always complaing

 04.09.25

Topic: Stative and dynamic verbs

 

Stative verbs ( not used in -ing form) often relate to:

• thoughts and opinions: agree, believe, doubt, forget, guess, imagine, know, mean, recognise, remember, suspect, think, understand
• feelings and emotions: dislike, hate, like, love, prefer, want, wish
• senses and perceptions: appear, be, feel, hear, look, see, seem, smell, taste
• possession and measurement: belong, have, measure, own, possess, weigh.

 

Verbs that are sometimes stative

think

I think it's a good idea. - opinion
Wait a moment! I'm thinking. - actively processing thoughts

have

I have an old car. (state – possession)
I'm having a quick break. (action – having a break is an activity)

see

Do you see any problems with that? (state – opinion)
We're seeing Tadanari tomorrow afternoon. (action – we're meeting him)

be

He's so interesting! (state – his permanent quality)
He's being very unhelpful. (action – he is temporarily behaving this way)

taste

This coffee tastes delicious. (state – our perception of the coffee)
Look! The chef is tasting the soup. (action – tasting the soup is an activity)

Smell

Something smells bad (state – perception)

She is smelling the flowers (action – wąchąć)

Feel

I feel ok (state – czuć się)

He’s feeling the ground beneath him. (action – dotykać)

Hear

I hear you (state – perception)

She is hearing voices (action – she thinks she hears sth)

 

 03.09.2025

Topic: Present Simple and Present Continuous

Present Simple:

I go to school.

She goes to school.

Lives watches studies has

Question: Do you go to school?

                   Does she go to school?

Negative: I don’t go to school.

                  She doesn’t go to school.

-        Always, never, sometimes, often …

-        Every day, Monday, year

Present Continuous:

I’m working

We are working

I’m not working

We aren’t working

Are you working?

Is he working?